The witch hunts of medieval Europe and Salem, USA, were not just about superstition—they were a brutal tool to control women who defied norms.
Healers, midwives, and independent thinkers were branded as demons and burned, all to uphold patriarchal power.
Centuries later, the same tactics persist: from Bangladesh, where women demanding rights are smeared as "anti-Islamic," to Europe's unresolved femicide crisis, the ghosts of witch hunts linger.
Why does society still fear women who dare to be free? This is the dark thread connecting past and present.
Witch-hunting during Medieval and early modern age in Europe
Witch-hunting in medieval Europe (from the 5th to 15th century) was less systematic than the later Early Modern Age(15the century to 18th century) trials, but it laid the ideological and legal groundwork for mass persecutions.
Accusations against women were often grounded in aspects of Christian theology, with the aim of social control and the suppression of marginalised groups. The victims were women – particularly those who practised herbal medicine, midwifery, or challenged patriarchal norms. Women's victimisation not only despite, but because of, their efforts for the greater good is an irony that has repeated itself over the centuries.
In the Early Middle Ages (5th–10th century), belief in magic was widespread, but the Canon Episcopi (certain passage of medieval law in the 9th century) dismissed witchcraft as superstition. And the punishments typically were mild such as penance or exile.
However, during the High Middle Ages (11th–13th century), crises like the Black Death (1347–1351) and the Great Famine (1315–1317) led people to seek scapegoats for their suffering. The Church began to link witchcraft to demonic activity and started to target women healers as "demonic figures".
Witchcraft was officially criminalised in the Late Middle Ages (14th–15th century). Pope Innocent VIII's Summis Desiderantes (1484) declared witchcraft a real threat, and in 1487 Heinrich Kramer published Malleus Maleficarum (1487), a witch-hunting manual that portrayed women as inherently evil.
These developments set the stage for the widespread witch trials of the Early Modern period.
Witch-hunting in early modern Europe had been a social, religious, and political phenomenon that affected several parts of the continent between the 15th and 18th centuries.
Both Catholic and Protestant churches believed that it was their duty to protect society by identifying and punishing witches – allegedly those women who had great skills in medicine and science, especially in chemistry. Accusations were often based on little or no evidence.
Trials were often cruel and unjust—many accused witches were tortured until they confessed, and even those who denied the charges were often executed.
Such summary executions did not however go unquestioned.
Theologians and scholars in early modern Europe were divided on whether the alleged witchcraft represented real demonic power or just a superstition.
Some viewed witchcraft as heresy requiring eradication, while skeptics like Johann Weyer argued accused "witches" were mentally ill.
Witch-hunting as a tool of marginalising women
Witch-hunting has functioned as a tool of marginalising women, serving as a tool to maintain patriarchal order under the pretext of superstition and communal fear.
Despite scientific advances having reached most corners of the world, witch-hunting continues in many parts of the world today, especially in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Women—particularly those who are poor, widowed, elderly, or from marginalised communities—are frequently branded as witches. These accusations are rarely based on actual belief in witchcraft, but are often rooted in social, economic, and gendered power dynamics.
In many cases, women are labelled as "witches" to punish them for seeking independence, challenging male authority, or simply surviving without a man's protection.
For instance, in rural India, women accused of witchcraft are often targeted due to land disputes, family rivalries, or as scapegoats for unexplained illnesses or deaths within the community.
Silvia Federici, in her, "Caliban and the Witch (2004)", argues that the witch hunts in Europe between the 15th and 18th centuries were not just expressions of mass hysteria, but strategic efforts to reinforce emerging capitalist and patriarchal orders by criminalising women, especially for their control over reproduction, healing knowledge, and communal authority.
The portrayal of women as witches or beings to be viewed with acute suspicion and revulsion, is as pervasive as it is dangerous. It has always been a cultural narrative that justifies violence against women who step outside societal norms.
Women rights violations in Modern Europe
Despite Europe being a progressive region for gender equality, women across the continent still face rights violations and discriminations.
One of the most concerning issues is gender-based violence, with Spain recording 1,468 femicides between 2003 and 2024, including 49 women killed by partners or ex-partners in 2023 alone.
France also struggles with high rates of sexual violence, where an estimated 94,000 women experience rape or attempted rape each year.
Backlashes against feminist movements, such as online harassment and smear campaigns, deter women from leadership roles.
Even in Scandinavia — hailed for gender equality — migrant and minority women face barriers, and forced marriages.
Gender pay gaps continue to be an issue in Western societies spanning sectors from corporations to sport.
America's Salem witch trials
Witch-hunting in America, most infamously associated with the Salem Witch Trials (1692–1693) in colonial Massachusetts, was influenced by European traditions but had distinct characteristics.
Unlike Europe's large-scale persecutions, American witch trials were fewer but followed similar patterns of mass hysteria, religious extremism, and social tensions.
Puritan beliefs in Satan's influence and strict moral codes fuelled suspicions, leading to accusations — mostly against women and particularly against those who were outspoken, economically independent, or socially marginalised.
Despite being a democratic country for more than 200 years, the USA has never elected any female president.
A modern Bangladeshi perspective
Women in Bangladesh have long been subjugated, even though their contribution is a pillar on which the country's economy stands.
Hefazat-e-Islam Bangladesh, a leading Islamic political party in Bangladesh, on May 3, demanded scrapping the report of Women's Reform Commission and also called for disbanding it.
According to the party, the recommendations made by the Women's Reform Commission contradicts Islamic rules and regulations. While pressing their demands in a mass rally, the party made derogatory remarks towards women who wish to be independent, and speak and act against the patriarchal norms of the society.
Later, on May 16, Women's rights activists in protest of the ongoing attacks on women's rights called a march called "Narir Daake Moitree Jatra".
Participants carried powerful placards with messages like "No means No", "It's not about clothes but mentality", "Reform must start from here", and "We Want Justice".
These demands are justified by even a cursory glance at records of violence against women in Bangladesh and surrounding countries.
There was also a time in the country when the threat of acid attacks was ever-present in the psyche of women.
From 2000 to 2009, the most common reason for acid attacks was refusing a romantic proposal. The next in the list was property disputes, according to ASF (Acid Survivors Foundation).
Eighty percent of the victims of these cases were women and children while 20 percent were men.
From 1999 to 2022, a total of 3,870 people were victims of acid attacks.
After reaching a peak of 496 in 2002, the number started to drop from 2003.
According to Police Headquarters data, the cases of violence against women and children surged by 19.5 percent from December 2024 to January 2025.
Ain o Salish Kendra (ASK), a human rights organisation, reported 250 rapes in the first six months of 2024 alone, with 14 women murdered after being raped and three taking their own lives.
Crimes like rape, burglary, theft and swindling in the Indian state of Odisha showed an uptick in 2024 compared to 2023, according to a written reply by chief minister Mohan Charan Majhi in the assembly in 2024, according to a Times of India report.
The CM stated that the law and order situation remained under control, noting that serious offences like murder, dacoity and robbery went down after the BJP formed the govt on June 12, 2024.
Data presented in the assembly revealed that total case registrations rose from 199,954 in 2023 to 214,113 in 2024, about a 7 percent increase. Rape incidents saw an 8 percent rise with 3,054 cases registered in 2024 compared to 2,826 in 2023.
A persistent evil
The witch-hunting tradition in medieval and early modern Europe was a mechanism to suppress women who stood against societal norms. The targets of the society or the church were often those who were independent, knowledgeable, or economically self-sufficient.
By branding them as witches, patriarchal authorities justified their persecution, depriving them of rights and sustaining the gender hierarchies.
In civilised discourse in most parts of the world, the term "witchcraft" is now seen to be a relic of the past, but the underlying hatred and misogyny that fuelled those persecutions are unfortunately still very relevant today.
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